Looking At Ancient Clothing And Textiles From Poetry And Literature

Clothing holds great importance in Chinese culture, as reflected in sayings such as "respecting what you are wearing before respecting the person." To better understand the clothing and textiles mentioned in ancient Chinese poetry and literature, let's delve into the meanings and distinctions of terms like "ge" (葛kudzu), "luo" (羅 gauze), "gao" (縞white plain silk), and "xiu" (綃chiffon).

During the pre-Qin period (先秦), the traditional clothing of the Han Chinese, known as Hanfu (漢服) primarily utilized fabrics derived from plant fibers such as kudzu and ramie. The manufacturing process was relatively simple. The poem Ge Tan (葛覃) in the Book of Poetry( 《詩經•周南•葛覃》) vividly describes this era, mentioning the abundant growth of kudzu plants used for creating beautiful robes and skirts that never wore out. The stems of the kudzu plant were cut and soaked in river water to remove any unpleasant odor. Fibers were then extracted from the plant through steaming, pounding, and kneading, which were then woven into fine cloth for inner garments. Coarser fibers were spun into outerwear.

In Xin Qiji's poem Shui Diao Ge Tou, (辛棄疾《水調歌頭》) kudzu is referred to as a general name for summer clothes. Kudzu was widely used in ancient times and even persisted in rural areas during the Republican era.

In ancient times, the main raw materials used for cloth were Kudzu and silk. In rural households, it was a common practice to spin and weave Kudzu and homespun textiles. Some families even owned wooden spinning wheels and looms to facilitate this process. Using these wooden looms, they would weave the fabrics and then sew them into garments, bedding, and tents by hand. Silk fabrics, on the other hand, were considered luxury items that the common people could not afford. As a result, they more frequently wore clothing made from coarse textiles, such as those woven from Kudzu and linen. The use of cotton was limited to the fabrics of a small number of minority ethnic groups. Cotton only became popular later, after spinning and weaving techniques were introduced from the West.

Another poem, "The Seventh Month," from the Book of Songs, (《詩經. •豳風•七月》)portrays the creation of clothing for different seasons or solar terms during the pre-Qin period. It emphasizes the necessity of good clothes and warm garments to endure various weather conditions throughout the year. This poem showcases the busy scenes of silk production, spinning, and weaving of exquisite clothing for the princes, princesses, and nobles of the Zhou Dynasty(周朝). The evolution of Hanfu is evident from this poem, with the introduction of richer colors such as black and dark red. Materials like brocade and fur were utilized, which provided both warmth and elegance. However, these materials were primarily reserved for daily wear by the royal and noble families. Brocade refers to silk fabric with patterns, and excavated artifacts have revealed silk jacquard fabrics with patterned motifs. Despite the technological limitations of that time, the ability to weave textured patterns on silk fabric was already impressive and revolutionary.

The poem Lü Yi in the Book of Poetry (《詩經•邶風•綠衣》) describes the outer garments of Hanfu. It mentions green tops lined with yellow on the inside, creating a bright, beautiful, and fresh overall color palette. This showcases the aesthetic taste prevalent among the literati of that era.

In the poem Mang from the Book of Poetry(《詩經•衛風•氓》), both cloth and silk play significant roles in the story and are materials used in creating Hanfu. The poem describes a young man who uses cloth and silk as a pretense to propose to a girl. Initially, the girl intends to find a matchmaker, but she eventually accepts the man due to his appearance and sincerity. However, as the girl's beauty fades with age, the man abandons her. Here, the two fabrics serve as a contrast, with silk symbolizing high-quality and elegance while cloth represents ordinariness. The poem portrays the man as a rustic individual who trades cloth for silk, not genuinely interested in silk but using it as a means to propose. The author metaphorically compares the girl's beauty to silk and highlights the man's shallow character by equating him with ordinary cloth. The absence of a matchmaker's intervention leads to the man's abandonment of his wife, prompting the woman to express her grievance.

"The Liao Ling damask, what does it resemble? It does not resemble gauze or chiffon". This poem line is from Bai Juyi's "Liao Ling". So, what is "Liao Ling" (繚綾)? Gauze (luo 羅), chiffon (xiu 綃), satin silk (wan 紈), and damask (qi 綺) are all referring to different types of silk fabrics. They are all single-color woven fabrics, but they differ in texture and characteristics. Among them, gauze (luo) and damask (qi) are silk fabrics with distinct floral patterns, representing all the patterned silk fabrics aside from "Liao Ling". Meanwhile, chiffon (xiu) and satin (wan) are smooth, plain silk fabrics.

In Du Fu's poem (杜甫《端午日賜衣》) Giving Cloth on Duan Wu, he mentions "fine kudzu fabric" and "fragrant gauze." Kudzu refers to a plant that can be used for weaving cloth, and "fine kudzu fabric" denotes fabric made from the finest and best yarn. The gauze fabric( 羅 Luo) is loose woven as holding the gentle breeze and having fragrant layers as light as snow, emphasizing its softness, delicacy, and weightlessness.

Chiffon like fabric, being in woven type, referred to as Xiu (綃), is a lightweight silk fabric made from raw silk. It is depicted as splendid, white as snow, and light and elegant like cicada wings in Cao Pi's "White Silk." Chiffon's thin and airy nature makes it particularly suitable for summer wear. The line "Tear marks making red and fading out the transparent silk Xiu " from Lu You’s poem The Hairpin Phoenix (陸游《釵頭鳳》) indicates that the Xiu (綃) is highly transparent. This suggests that both Luo and Xiu both are loosely woven silk fabrics, but Xiu is thinner and more delicate in its porous structure compared to Luo.

Gossamer-like chiffon and gauze were the stars of ancient summer attire. Chiffon originally referred to a sparse fabric that allowed sand to pass through, hence the alternate name "plain chiffon" (Xiu). The most classic clothing of these was the Han Dynasty cicada-wing robe, a pinnacle of textile craftsmanship with only 62 warp and weft threads per square centimeter, allowing a remarkable 75% light transmittance - as delicate and translucent as cicada wings.

The other common summer fabric was gauze (luo). Gauze is characterized by its twisted warp threads, forming irregular perforations known as "pepper holes". Depending on the number of twisted warp threads, there were variations like three-twist gauze and four-twist gauze. This net-like weave originally derived from fishing nets, later adapted for silk production.

Take the example of a crimson yellow gauze robe from the Song Dynasty - one of the most prized garments of the era. Gauze was the most luxurious fabric, with 100,000 bolts of "tribute gauze" presented to the imperial court annually. The robe's grand dimensions signified the wearer's high status, especially the dramatic "wide sleeves" design. Most striking were the intricate decorations, including gilded edges and colored paintings on the collar, lapels, cuffs and hems, reflecting the Song's pursuit of sartorial artistry.

Whether the diaphanous chiffon or the ventilated gauze, these summer fabrics shared an excellent breathability, perfect for the scorching heat. The plain and translucent cicada-wing robe, the crimson yellow Song gauze robe - all embodied the aesthetic ideals of ancient summer attire. Chiffon and gauze were undoubtedly the quintessential summer textiles, distinguished by their lightness, thinness and breathability.

Satin, known as Wan (紈), is a shiny and fine raw silk fabric. It has a radiant and lustrous appearance. Wang Wei's Sending Li Guiyang (王維《送李睢陽》) describes it as "light wan, piled up with brilliant splendid colors," highlighting its shiny characteristic. Generally speaking, Satin silk has a denser weave structure without being porous. The term "Silk scion" naturally brings to mind the sons of wealthy families. They live carefree and indulgent lives, constantly pursuing luxurious lifestyles. They wear specially made trousers woven from the finest silk, with no crotch seam. These silk trousers showcase their extravagant fashion tastes, vastly different from the plain attire of common people. They do not need to tend to household chores and can fully immerse themselves in leisure and pleasure, spending their days in wine and women. For these wealthy young masters, lavish clothing symbolizes their social status and wealth. This phenomenon of using extravagant fashion to display one's identity was common in ancient societies. Moreover, Gao, (縞 Shiro ) refers to a type of specially luminous white silk fabric, normally which is of twill silk.

Damask, or Qi (綺), is a silk fabric with decorative patterns. Liu Xiyi (劉希夷)wrote in "Picking Mulberries"(採桑) that "Playing with the spring breeze in colored damask." Is portraying the gorgeous and colorful nature of damask. Damask is known for its intricate designs and vibrant colors.

However, the difference between Liao Ling Damask and other silk textiles is not just in their beautiful patterns. Liao Ling is a damask fabric, where the exquisite part lies in the way the pattern and the ground cloth interweave, creating a subtle contrast. This unique woven structure means the pattern can only be revealed through the refraction of light, creating contrasts and gradations, some effects like a complex labyrinth, inspiring endless imagination. As we shift our viewing angle and examine it closely, the damask pattern keeps shifting, like an enchanting scroll painting. The unique craftsmanship interweaves the gorgeous patterns with light and shadow, captivating the senses and impressing the spirit.

Compared with each other, Qi utilizes a plain weave structure, which is a warp-faced textile. The surface exhibits a smooth, satin-like feel and luster. In contrast, Liao Ling employs a twill weave structure, which is a weft-faced textile, clearly displaying the characteristic diagonal ribs or twill lines on the surface.

In terms of texture and pattern, Qi's texture is relatively simple, often featuring fixed geometric patterns or abstract designs. Liao Ling's texture, on the other hand, is more diverse and intricate, including various floral, faunal, and figurative motifs.  Liao Ling's color palette is also far more vibrant and varied compared to Qi. In terms of technical complexity, the weaving of Qi is relatively straightforward, resulting in higher production efficiency. Conversely, the weaving of Liao Ling is more intricate, requiring higher levels of weaving expertise, and thus lower production efficiency. From a historical perspective, Qi became popular earlier in ancient China and was representative of the attire of the upper class. Liao Ling, however, reached its peak during the Tang dynasty, becoming the primary clothing for aristocrats and officials. Over time, Liao Ling gradually fell out of favor.

Juan (絹) fabrics have a plain weave structure, with a light and thin texture that is durable, stiff, and smooth which can be used for women's and children's clothing. The plain weave structure is the simplest, where the warp and weft threads are interlaced one over one. The technique of silk weaving was already mastered as early as the Neolithic era. During the Five Dynasties period, there were imperial Juan products used as a craft medium, as paper and for mounting paintings - they were intricate luxury goods. As a result, they were favored by the nobility in the nomadic regions. In the Tang dynasty, Juan fabrics were used to trade for horses at military border posts. By the Song dynasty, Juan tribute was also offered to external tribes in exchange for peace, demonstrating the high status of silk.

Chou (綢)is a plain-weave fabric and is the most common silk textile. It has a smooth, delicate texture and soft hand feel. Compared to Juan, it is thicker and heavier which are suitable for making skirt and outer wears.

On the other hand, "Duan"(緞) is a type of twill weave construction, where  parts of the warp or weft thread segments are exposed on the surface, with the interweaving points evenly distributed, resulting in a soft and supple texture. The face of the fabric exhibits varying lengths of fine striations, giving it a smooth and lustrous effect, while the backside appears matte and dull. It is a high-quality silk material, commonly used for the production of luxurious formal attire.

In this ever-changing world, brocade becomes an artistic feast, distilling boundless aesthetic beauty from its fine details. Brocade (錦)is a beautiful and colorful patterned silk fabric from ancient times. Brocade satin is woven with dyed silk yarns, resulting in a vibrant silk fabric, which is a type of jacquard. Some are very famous traditional handicrafts include Yun brocade(雲錦), Song brocade(宋錦), and Shu brocade(蜀錦).

Duan Brocade (緞錦) is a richly decorative textile, characterized by an intricate raised pattern created through the supplementary weft technique. The warp and weft threads are woven at a lower frequency, resulting in longer floating threads that give brocade its signature lustrous sheen and supple hand feel. The origins of brocade can be traced back to the Song dynasty, when it gradually supplanted Liao Ling (綾) as the premier luxury fabric. Brocade's rise in prominence was due to its unparalleled aesthetic qualities - the interplay of light and shadow on its intricate patterned surface creates a mesmerizing visual effect, imbuing the fabric with an air of refined elegance and grandeur.

Even in modern times, brocade remains a staple of formal attire. Its versatility is remarkable - whether fashioned into lightweight blouses and dresses or heavy coats and over garments, brocade consistently captivates with its unique charm. The fabric's inherent delicacy, a byproduct of its distinctive weave structure, lends an air of precious exclusivity, further enhancing brocade's status as the quintessential material for high-end, sophisticated fashion.

Truly, brocade is a textile that has transcended the constraints of time. Its enduring appeal and representation of timeless elegance make it an iconic fabric, one that will continue to be celebrated and coveted by fashion enthusiasts for generations to come.

The choice of fabrics in ancient China was closely tied to social status and seasons. Distinctions of rank were reflected in the patterns and designs of the fabrics, while the softness and texture of the cloth showcased one's social standing. Coarse and durable cloth, such as hemp fabric, was suitable for work wear and everyday attire. Exquisite brocade patterns captivate the eye and are used for court ceremonial attire, showcasing opulent elegance. Delicate silk and shimmering damask are employed for women's adornment and formal attire. Gauzy and transparent chiffon provides a cool and refreshing sensation in the summer. Fabrics made of silk and linen were meticulously woven to demonstrate the skilled craftsmanship and long-standing traditions of textile production.

Clever dyeing techniques endowed fabrics with a rich array of colors and diverse patterns, highlighting individual style and elegance. Ancient poems vividly depicted the beauty of different fabrics, reflecting the pursuit of beauty by the people of that time. Fine silk was often used to represent the elegance of a beautiful woman, and one's taste in clothing also reflected prevailing social trends, offering us a glimpse into the profound aspects of ancient culture. It is suggested that we explore descriptions of textile and clothing in ancient poetry, songs, and essays to gain a deeper understanding of these literary works and the social context of the time. By doing so, we can grasp what the authors intended to express, metaphorize, and symbolize through their use of clothing and its fabric.

References

Books

1. 天津人民美術出版社 編：《中國織繡服飾全集·織染卷》（天津：天津人民美術出版社，2004）。

2. 黃能福、陳娟娟、黃鋼、黃能馥：《服饰中华 : 中华服饰七千年》（北京：清華大學出版社，2011）

3. 趙豐：《寻找缭绫：白居易《缭绫》诗与唐代丝绸》（杭州：浙江古籍出版社，2023）